Color Assingment # 4

Color Theory Symbolic Color Assignment 4 Francisco Letelier

There are two parts to this assignment.

A) bring in an example of symbolic color used by an artist in the past. It can be from any historical era predating @ 1900. ( The modernist or contemporary era begins at @ this time.) The Renaissance is a good area for exploration. Broadly considered, the period covers the 200 years between 1400 and 1600, although 'specialists' disagree on exact dates
Be prepared to explain the symbolism contained in the work.

B) Create a composition measuring 8.5x 11 inches on ( hot press) (smooth finish) illustration board, which employs symbolic color
Media: acrylic paint or gouache

waterproof black Technical pen aOK as secondary media but primary media is gouache or acrylic!


Your design may use symbols in order to reinforce the colors you have chosen.


This project requires that you engage in research. Exploring the symbolic use of color in other cultures or times is a good place to start. You may also use contemporary, and localized cultural references, however
avoid using "cliche" symbols ( overused, commonplace) ie: hearts, doves, skulls, peace symbols etc.



A Symbol is a word or image that references meaning beyond the obvious.
A symbol is a sign which has further layers of meaning. In other words, a symbol means more than it literally says. (Signs are literal; symbols are not).

For example, an image using reds and oranges to convey energy, might convey energy through shape and other design principles or through the depiction of images which symbolize energy such as the sun, a volcano erupting or a body in motion, Employ the techniques and ideas we have discussed in class concerning color, transparency, contrast and harmony.

Whatever you choose please be prepared to explain your color choices and the meaning and systems associated to your work.

If you buy a sheet of board, plan on making several cuts with a utility blade or exacto knife for each cut as you work towards your format size of 8.5 x 11". Each cut will take several passes of your blade along the cut line, you will be cutting through several layers of paper and board. Don’t try to achieve your cut in one stroke, as this will dull your blade and most probably create a warped cut.



Culture & Communications:
Similarities of Color Meanings Among Diverse Cultures

Marie Byrne NYSCID, ASID
Assistant Professor, New York University of Technology

Colors are all around and yet most people take the impact of their significance for granted. Color can alert people to danger, express emotion and is a way of identifying and organizing the environment. Therefore, people attach particular meanings to colors (Holtzchue 11). People respond to color not only as a visual event but also on interpreted intellectual, conscious, unconscious and subconscious levels. Psychologists have learned that particular colors can arouse the senses, cause emotional responses, alter behaviors, and induce particular moods (Holtzchue 2-3). In 1992, psychologist Ulrich Beer wrote in his book, What Color Tells Us, “Seldom, surely, is the psychological part of an appearance in nature so great as it is in the case of color. No one can encounter it and stay neutral. We are immediately, instinctively, and emotionally moved. We have sympathy and apathy, pleasure or disapproval within us as soon as we perceive color” (Mahnke 6). Dating back to the time of early civilizations, humans have attached meaning to their perception of various colors. Therefore, learned associations are important contributing factors in the way people perceive and attach meanings to colors. If color perception is subject to these learned associations, does it suggest that different cultures view meaning of various colors differently, or is it possible that there are basic links among diverse cultures? Historical information and contemporary research on the meanings associated with basic colors indicate that there are more similarities than differences cross-culturally.

Within every culture, there are various meanings associated with each basic color. However, within this context there are many similar core associations in both historic and contemporary times (Fine 445-7). Historically, evidence suggests that humans have attached particular meanings to colors and that many of those associations have withstood the test of time. Color assignments in the religious and cultural rituals in many parts of the world throughout history and in contemporary times; offer ways to gain insight into those cultures. Evidence of color associations have been also found in political and social representations of various countries such as in the colors of their flags or modes of dress. The written languages of cultures also show many color references and symbols. Many contemporary studies provide further proof that there are many similarities with regard to color preferences and meanings. Finally, globalization in the 21st Century further solidifies the concept that there are far more similarities than differences in the color associations of people cross-culturally.

It is important here to note that there are a great deal of variations and subtleties of various colors. Therefore, the focus will be to concentrate on purely saturated hues of black, white, red, yellow, blue and green. Hue refers to the name of the color. Value relates to the lightness and darkness of a particular color, and saturation or chroma is a term meaning the intensity or brilliance of a color. The extreme polarity of black and white has been universally symbolic throughout history in most cultures. Black symbolizes evil, emptiness, death, and dirtiness, but also power, dignity and strength. Since black symbolizes death, it is the color worn by many cultures in times of mourning. “Its use in mourning is very old, it probably comes from the ancient Semitic custom of blackening the face with dirt or ashes to make it unrecognizable to the malignant dead, as well as a mark of grief and submission” (Genov 4). At the extreme opposite is white. This color symbolizes purity, sterility, innocence, and goodness, but also sterility in most cultures (Sharpe 47). Most religions use white to indicate spirituality, hope, and innocence. Jewish, Christian and Hindu religions use the color white in rituals to indicate purity, chastity, virginity and inner peace. The symbol of the white dove signifies a state of perfection, peace, and blessedness. In marriage ceremonies of many cultures, women wear white. Since white is symbolizes cleanliness and sterility in most cultures, it is not surprising that it is the flag color used in hospital and health care facilities throughout the world. While most countries designate black as the color of mourning, in China and most of Asia, the color of mourning is white (Mahnke 64-5). This is not a complete contradiction, however. In many religions, there is the belief that death is not an end but a beginning. The use of white in this context means that a person brings purity into the next life. Today as in the past, black has mostly negative connotations due to the fear of the unknown associated with darkness, night and the absence of light. White is representative of a positive color. This distinction between black and white as extreme opposites is symbolic in most cultures.

Red is the color of blood and therefore relates to life itself. It is associated with fire, energy, passion and love, but it is also associated with rage and war. It is a color used as a sign of provocation and revolution. In Greek mythology, it was the color designated for the planet Mars and god of war (Mahnke 61-2). Red is a dominant color in China and is the color of good luck and happiness, since it is a belief that this color promotes long life. Red permeates Chinese New Year’s celebrations and is the traditional color the bride wears. When a Chinese baby is between one month to one year old, red colored eggs and ginger are what they use to mark the celebration (“Chinese”11). As is the case in many Asian cultures there is a strong association of the color red with the sun, the fiery ball giving life to the universe. In Japan’s Shinto religion, red is the symbol of life. For Hebrews this color represents sacrifice and sin. Christian art depicts Christ wearing red robes symbolizing not only the blood he shed as a sacrifice, but also his passion and love. It is also interesting to note that the term “red light district” to designate places of prostitution is neither culture specific nor a contemporary concept. While cultures and religions may vary, the use of red as a powerful symbol of life, passion, love, and war still appears in many places throughout the world.

Yellow is reflective and luminous. In most cultures, it has an association to the sun, the dominant force in the solar system. It is associated with wisdom, glory, light, joy, enthusiasm and optimism in many parts of the world. In Greek mythology, it is the color of Mercury, the messenger of the gods, and the communicator of mental and spiritual enlightenment (Mahnke 62). It is also the Chinese color for royalty, and during the Ch’ing Dynasty, only the Emperor could wear yellow. It is still in use in ceremonies that “pay homage to the earth”. Christians consider yellow the color of the “gates of heaven” (Theroux 3). Yellow also has negative meanings in most cultures. It is associated with aging, and illness, since it is the color of jaundiced skin, decayed teeth, infection and pus. Contemporary author T.S. Eliot described the fog in London as yellow in his poetry to depict psychological illness (Theroux 68-78). Author Alexander Theroux states, “We go into yellow, I suppose, each in our own way, with values attuned, no doubt, to whatever mode of empathy our particular vision aspires” (78). Yellow has spiritual significance throughout many cultures dating back to Ancient civilizations who believed that their lives were ruled by an “omnipotent power within the sky” symbolic of yellow (Birren 24).

Blue is symbolic for calmness, peace, loyalty, truth, dignity, royalty and contemplation, but also sadness. It is associated with the sky and the sea, and looked upon in many cultures as infinite and mysterious (Hibi 26). The ancient priests and physicians of Britain known as the Druids considered blue to be the color of harmony, truth, and wisdom (Birren 28-9). In Christianity, it is Christ’s hue, and the color of heaven where he resides. Blue symbolizes the color of “The Divine Light” and the Virgin Mary. In early Christian mosaic art, blue was a dominant color used as the background of many artists’ works (Gage, “Color and Culture” 58). During the Middle Ages, blue was never a color used to designate social position. It was also was not a choice of liturgical vestments. For these reasons, blue enjoys the designation of a non-threatening color, which everyone can use (Pastoureau 92-3). After the 12th Century, blue became extremely popular. “…The fact that blue is the favorite color of more than half the population is at the very least a sign that it is neither violent nor transgressive, and probably an expression of its relatively weak symbolic potential” (Pastoureau 180). Today many studies and polls rank blue as a color least disliked by all cultures. Perhaps it is because blue in most cultures is a calm, peaceful, and neutral color.

Green is the color of nature in most cultures. It combines gay yellow and dignified blue. It is tranquil, refreshing, quiet, and natural. Early rituals centered on the hope of a good harvest with fresh green vegetables, the food sustaining life itself. It is the color of hope, healing, immortality, and fertility. Where there are seasonal cycles, green signifies spring, rebirth, youth and freshness (Mahnke 63). Islam attaches significant importance to green and is still a sacred color to Muslims since it is symbolic of virtue. Those who have gone to Mecca wear green turbines and only those of perfect faith can wear green. In the holy book, the Koran, Mohammed promises glory to the virtuous on the day of final judgment. “There will be gardens of dark green, fountains, fruit trees, and pomegranates. Therein shall they delight themselves, lying on green cushions and beautiful carpets” (Birren 32). In Japan, there are no negative associations to the color green since it is the symbol of life. A different green plant is associated with each of the four seasons in all aspects of the Japanese culture especially representative in their artwork. For example, pine evergreens adorn New Year’s decorations. The meticulous care taken in shaping miniature trees known as “bonsai” is a way of keeping “the green in nature close at hand”(Hibi 46). Even moss, which has somewhat negative associations in some cultures, only has a positive association for the Japanese. “The green of moss signifies the pleasing patina of age. On rocks or trees, it is considered a valuable adjunct, a touch of fresh, moist green, to the long established beauty of a traditional garden” (Hibi 46). The strong universal association of green and nature accounts for its popularity in most cultures.

Rituals are not the only place that we find various symbols for colors. During historical and contemporary times, societies have assigned meaning to colors politically and as a means of social identity. It is important politically to assign significant colors to local and national flags. The flags provide powerful non-verbal images identifying a particular society. It is interesting to note that many flags come about in the early stages of a country’s history during or after a time of turmoil either religiously or philosophically. While generally flags only contain a few colors, each country or locale has a unique way of displaying those colors as a means of identity. In 1969, Martin Lindauer analyzed the colors of 107 flags from Asia, Africa, Europe, Latin America, the Middle East and the United States. Ninety-seven percent of flags in those locations contained red, blue, green and yellow. Of the counties using these four colors, 38% used red as the dominant color. In Africa, however countries use a disproportionate amount of green and black in their flags (Sharpe 33-6). In addition to this study, it is common knowledge that certain color combinations in flags are not unique. For example, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States use red, white, and blue in their national flags. Red to signify the blood shed for liberty, white for purity, and blue to signify the domination over sky and sea (Fine 448). Studies conducted on flag colors indicate that while the philosophy and government might be different, the meaning of colors used in flags has more of a universal acceptance.

Political assignment of color is not only prevalent with national flags, but also as a means of social identity. We see the association of color politically in the mandatory or voluntary dress in both the historical and contemporary world. Throughout history, social divisions have been color-coded in both political and religious contexts. This division is still relevant today (Gage, “Color and Meaning” 34). Traditionally in India for example, specific colors designated the four castes or classes. Brahmans, the sacred caste, wore white. They studied and taught. The Kshatriyas or the militant caste wore red. Vaisyas, the mercantile caste wore yellow while the Sudras, the servile class, wore black. These color assignments follow many symbolic similarities such as the color white with spirituality and red with passion and war. In China, during the Sung, Ming, and Ch’ing Dynasties, officials of the Emperor wore designated colors according to their rank. Respectable Chinese wore somber hues of blues, grays, and browns. These are still popular dress colors in China today (Birren 29-31). During the Middle Ages, black for clothing became popular and in the Renaissance it was worn by the wealthy and nobility in all parts of Europe (Gage, “Color and Meaning” 31). During the Protestant Reformation, proper dignified attire was required according to rank and sex (Pastoureau 86-91). Puritans believed in somber dress and ornament. They imposed fines on people who wore bright colored clothing. Radical Protestants wore blue-greens as a sign of achievement (Sharpe 34). They viewed black as the most virtuous and dignified color to wear (Pastoureau 99). Traditionally, wearing the color red had its link to sexuality, as we see in the literary reference to Hester Prynne, the main character in the book, The Scarlet Letter (Fine 450-1). Today, street gangs use colors as a means of identification. “…color per se does not have any particular set of meanings. But when interpreted within a cultural domain, based on previous contexts, (Fine 1992) and grounded in expectation and socialization, such collective representation seem self-evident and inarguable” (Fine 452). Over the years, the use of color as a means of social identity has taken on many interpretations. Today, even within the diversity of cultures there are striking similarities. Wearing flashy or inappropriate colors of attire can still place a person outside social boundaries. The use of somber dark colors such as black still signifies dignified and respectable dress in many societies today.

Linguistics provides further evidence on how cultures express color meaning. There are many examples of the use of color as metaphors, which have cultural significance, in most languages throughout the world. Greenhorns, bluebloods, blackmail, green with envy, green of youth, red carpet, true blue and the blues, are some examples. However, some color metaphors lose their power as the reason for their reference fades. For example, the term “blue collar” worker originally referred to the blue shirts worn by people working in manual labor positions as opposed to the white shirts of a skilled “white collar” worker. Today people wear a wide variety of colored clothing in all areas of the work force which will eventually make these terms seem less significant. It is safe to speculate that while the reason for the reference of a color metaphor might no longer be relevant, the metaphor itself will still remain and be adapted cross-culturally. “As these and other measures indicate, color serves as part of our cultural “tool kit” (Swidler 1986)- or put more directly, part of the crayon box by which we shade social reality” (Fine 444).